Read the summary and the most important questions on AQA A-level Philosophy Year 2 Metaphysics of God and metaphysics of mind | 9781471899843 | Jeremy Hayward; Gerald Jones; Dan Cardinal

• 1 The Metaphysics of God

• 1.2.2 Teleological Arguments

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• What is the 'Argument from Analogy'?

  1. In his 'Dialogs Concerning Natural Religion', David Hume states that machines, designed by humans, share design like properties with the natural world. Hume points out that machines consist of parts that adjusted perfectly to each other to meet an end and so are the properties of the universe but on a wonderous scale.
     
  2. As machines are designed by humans, it is probably the case that the universe was designed by an intelligence with 'much larger faculties' proportionate to its wonderous scale.

• What example, used by David Hume, could you give to support the 'Argument from Analogy'?

  1. Compares a watch, which consists of parts that are adjusted to each other perfectly to meet an end of allowing humans to tell the time to the human eye which also has these properties but on a grand scale to meet an end of allowing humans to see.
     
  2. The watch is designed by a human intelligence, therefore it is probably the case that the human eye has also been designed by an intelligence with 'much larger faculties' proportionate to its wonderous scale.

• What are the criticisms of David Hume's 'Argument from Analogy'?

  1. 'Argument from the Problem of Spatial Disorder' proposed by David Hume
     
  2. The argument that 'God is not the Best or the only Explanation of Purpose Within the Universe' proposed by Charles Darwin
  3. Unique Case

• What is the counter-argument to the 'Argument from the Problem of Spatial Disorder'?

  1. William Paley asserts that some spatial disorder does not count against design because machines do not always function correctly despite being created by an intelligence.
  2. We are still able to identify that machines have a designer because we can observe the intricate parts adjusted in the attempt to meet an end. Machines do not need to be perfectly functioning to indicate a designer, so long as the machine exhibits some sort of purpose
  3. Therefore, the existence of God is not incompatible with the existence of apparent design flaws.

• What is the argument that 'God is not the Best or the Only explanation of Purpose in the Universe'?

  Within Charles Darwin's 'On the Origin of Species', he argued that mutations occur within a species and these mutations have the potential to be beneficial. Offspring with these advantageous mutations are less likely to be killed and are more likely to pass on their genes. Over a number of generations, the advantageous characteristics become more common throughout the species. Hence, the species becomes more adapted to its environment, which he named the process of 'natural selection' otherwise known as the 'theory of evolution'. 

• What Example Could you Give to Support 'The Problem of Spatial Disorder'?

  The erratic and uncertain behaviour of quantum particles.

• What Example Could you Give to Support the Counter-argument to 'The Problem of Spatial Disorder' that 'Some Spatial Disorder Does not Count Against Design'?

  People may observe problems in the functioning of a watch, such as a failure for it to work, however they would still be able to observe its design like qualities, such the finely tuned arrangement of the machinery to meet a purpose. Despite not being perfect, people would still be able to identify its design like qualities and therefore would be able to conclude that the watch had a designer.

• What Example Could you Give in Support of the Argument That 'God is not the Best or the Only Explanation'?

  In Victorian London, light coloured peppered moths were replaced in number by dark coloured peppered moths as pollution got worse, blackening the trees with soot, because lighter coloured moths were easier of predators to see and catch and were eaten before they had a chance to reproduce, whereas dark coloured peppered moths replicated their advantageous genes to the next generations, making them more common. Hence, the species became more adapted to its environment through the process of natural selection. 

• What example, presented by Hume, could you give that 'The Argument Fails as it is From a Unique Case'?

  Hume gives the example of a billiard ball approaching another, striking it and it moving away, which we believe has been caused by that collision. However, all we saw was one ball approach another, become conjoined in space for a moment, and the second ball moving away. There could have been an elaborate magnetic system under the table that caused the second ball to move away after being conjoined with the first. Yet, sensory impressions would remain the same with a completely different cause or no cause whatsoever. 

• What are the counter-arguments to 'The Argument Fails as it is From a Unique Case'?

  1. An Argument From a Unique Case can Still be Successful 
     
  2. Few People Have Experience of Certain Artefacts Being Made