Read the summary and the most important questions on Cognitive behavioral Neurological Science

• Pharmacology

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• Pharmacology has two branches

  1. Pharmacodynamics: What does the drug do to the organism.
  2. Pharmacokinetics: What does the organism do to the drug. 

• Drug action vs. drug effect

  Every medicine is toxic but have an effect to the body In order to help.

• Opium is an example of drug effect vs. drug action. It has morphine in it and has the following effects: 

  • Pain relief
  • Constipation
  • Miosis
  • Euphoria
  • Addiction
  • But has only one drug action: Stimulation of the opioid receptors. 

• Drugs that have the same chemical structure has the same drug action,

  if they are different chemically they will have different effects.

• Drug action can occur via two different mechanisms:

  • A general action (none specific)
  • A specific interaction with a protein through the:
  • Receptor
  • Enzyme
  • Transporter
  • Etc.

• Basic Principles of Neurology

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• Why would K+ ions flow out of the cells, when they were at an equilibrium at the resting membrane potential?

  Due to the axon potential, the outside of the cell is not negative compared to the inside, so the electrical and concentration gradient will start pushing K+ out of the cells again until both gradients are at equilibrium again (i.e. at the resting membrane potential).

• Now the ion channels (Na+ channels closed and K+ channels open) and the resting potential are back to their original state. Does that mean that the normal situation is completely restored again? And if not, what needs to be done?

  No, Na+ has flown into the cell and K+ out of the cell. This needs to be corrected to prevent the cells from depletion. Therefore the Na+ /K+ pump needs to actively transport Na+ out of the cell and K+ back in.

• Given the fact that local anesthetics influence such a basal mechanism as the opening of Na+ channels, aren’t these substances potentially lethal? And if so, why can they be used without much danger.

  Yes they are. They will block all axon potential generation, although thinner fibers are slightly more sensitive than thicker ones. That’s why we need to give them locally. If they do get into the blood stream, they can be lethal.

• Will this opening of Ca2+ channels lead to an influx or an efflux of Ca2+ ions, and why?

  It leads to an influx because the Ca2+ concentration is much larger outside than inside the cell.

• The different forms of communication all have their own specific advantages and disadvantages. What are the main advantages and disadvantages of a (neuro)hormone in comparison to a neurotransmitter?

  The main advantage of a (neuro)hormone is that they can potential reach everywhere in the body, since they are transporter via the blood stream. Neurotransmitters only influence receptors in the synaptic cleft or perhaps some receptors that are outside of this but very close by. The main disadvantage is that (neuro)hormones, since they use the blood for transportation, work more slowly. Whereas neurotransmission takes place in milliseconds, the blood takes about 1 minute to move through the body, and in reality the (neuro)hormones usually work much slower than that