Read the summary and the most important questions on Communities, conservation and development

• Human rights, justice and conservation

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• Which variables determine the category a PA is placed within the IUCN Protected Area's category system?

  They rank from "most natural conditions" to "least natural conditions". How natural the conditions are are based the decree of environmental modification.

• Which IUCN protected area categories are there? From most to least natural conditions?

  - Strict nature reserve or Wilderness area
  - National park or National monument or feature
  - Habitat/ species management area
  - Protected landscape/ seascape
  - Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

• Which consequences do protected area encompass for local people?

  -Neighbouring nature
  -Displacement
  -Changing land use rights
  -Changing identities
  -Conflict

• What are the direct costs of neighbouring protected nature for local people?

  -crop raids
  -dangerous animals

• What are the indirect costs of neighbouring protected areas for local people?

  -opportunity costs for crop defence
  -corrupt and rent seeking behaviour PA staff
  -possible limitations for development

• How many have replaced due to national parks worldwide (estimated)?

  Millions of people

• Why is it difficult to estimate how many people have replaced due to the creation of PA's?

  -lack of reporting
  -direct or indirect replacing?
  -past and present replacements
  -disentangled conservation aims
  -re-establishment

• Why is displacement of people perceived as a problem?

  -Often violence
  -It comes with major impoverment risks
  -Issues of identity

• What often happens regarding land use rights for local people when a protected area is established?

  -They get limited in their access
  -There is a liminal space in which the local people are waiting and in which they are uncertain and unaware of what is happening in the area
  -Activities are criminalised (criminalisation)
  -Conflicts over benefits occur

• Why is the changing of identities due to the establishment of protected area's perceived as negative?

  When local people start to mingle with "modern" or "western" culture they often change or lose some of their traditions. This is sometimes not in line with the Western view of how these people ought to be. (Nobel savages)