The rise of neuroscience
31 important questions on The rise of neuroscience
Why did aristotle think that the mind was the heart?
- The heart is perceptibly affected by emotion
- It is located at a central point, according to the role of thinking
- All living creatures with blood have a heart, but not all have an observable brain (invertebrates)
- he thought the brain was cooling the heart
What did galen do for neuroscience?
- He discovered a a function of the nerve pathways
- Cutting the nerves in a pig's throat prevents the pig from making any noise
- So the 'voice' comes from the brain, not the heart
- The role of the brain as a hub was established
What were vesalius' ideas about the brain?
- Beforehand it was thought that the ventricles hold the mind.
- vesalius confirmed three ventricles and made a functional distinction; from front to back;
- 1st ventricle: common sense, fantasy
- 2nd ventricle: thoughts
- 3rd ventricle: memory
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What did descartes do for neuroscience?
- introduced mechanical ideas about body and behavior
- he introduced the reflex;
- a sensory sensation travels through the nerves
- it's 'bounced back' through the same nerves as a mirror in the brain
- That leads to (involuntary) behavior
How did descartes solve the mind-body problem?
- Descartes said there were two substances; the material and the immaterial.
- the soul was the immaterial substance.
- the reason that the soul as immaterial substance could move the material body is because Body and soul meet in pineal gland
What did willis do for neuroscience?
- He moved the focus on the brain from the ventricles and the pineal gland to the rest of the matter
- he thought Higher brain structures were for more advanced organisms, more complex functions
- Lower structures were for more elementary functions
What did gall do for neuroscience?
- organology;
- Differences in predisposition can be seen in cortical development: well- developed function, larger cortical area
- cranioscopy;
- Differences in cortical development can be seen in nodules of the skull (e.g. language module)
What did flourens do for neuroscience?
- He was the first to be able to cut in animals' brains and keep them alive for a day or more.
- while doing this he discovered;
- the localization of function of the brainstem, but not of the cortex.
- after cutting it the cortex was still functional
- he proposed the equipotentiality theory; psychological functions are indivisible properties of the cortex as a whole
also; if you take away a piece of the cortex, it is still functional as a whole
What did sechenov do for neuroscience?
- He was the founder of inhibition
- he wrote about how inhibition is not only seen in experimental animal settings but also in sociaty, in the form of moral behavior
How did broca and wernicke contribute to the progressing of cortical localization?
- People with damage to Broca's area say sensible things in bad sentences
- People with damage to Wernicke's area say nonsensical things in good sentences
How did jackson contribute to neuroscience?
- He studied epilepsy
- found the jacksonian march; the order in which they twitched when having an attack was set.
- based on this he hypothized that the order was caused by a corresponding order of brain activation
- therefor he suspected around 1860 a specific relationship between certain brain areas and muscles in specific parts of the body
How did fritz and hitzig contribute to neuroscience?
- They challenged flourens; they said the cortex was functioning as a whole
- Cortex can be stimulated and there are several (motor) areas!
- they found this by stimulating dog brains
- confirmed Hughlings Jackson experimentally
How did bartholow contribute to neuroscience
- He was the first to repeat fritz and hitzigs findings on humans
- the woman died during experiments
After darwin proposed the evolution theory, how did spencer project this on the brain?
- All structures, from brain structures to society structures, evolve from undifferentiated and homogeneous to differentiated and heterogeneous (increased complexity)
How did jackson combined the ideas of willis and fritz and hitzig?
- Central nervous system has different levels of sensori-motor units (f and h)
- The evolutionary oldest are at the bottom of the brain (willis)
- The evolutionary newest (more complex, more differentiated and more flexible) areas are at the top of the brain
- Higher areas integrate input from lower areas
How did jackson refute the idea of a soul?
- Higher mental processes ('Will, Memory, Reason, and Emotion') found their origin in 'sensori-motor nervous arrangements'.
- there is no soul, everything consists of sensori-motor arangements
Jackson thought that the higher brain areas not only integrate input from lower areas, but do something more. What was it and what was his reasoning?
- He thought the higher brain areas also control the lower brain areas
- so he thought behavior would go away if the brain area would be removed, but this didn't happen, new behavior started showing
- so; he discovered ‘Release from control’: Cortical areas could no longer control, lower areas were given free play
- he called this phenomenon Dissolution
- dissolution is the opposite of evolution, instead of evolving to more complex behavior a step back is taken into more primitive behavior
- also seen in drunkenness and Neurological & psychiatric disorders
What did golgi do for neuroscience?
- The quality of microscopes increased in the 19th century
- it was discovered that the brain consists of small parts ('globules')
- Golgi discovered that you can make these globules visible with silver nitrate
- he then became a Supporter of reticularism: the brain is a continuous network
How did y cajal built upon golgi's work?
- He discovered with golgi's staining techique that the globules are actually separate cells instead of one continuous network
What was james' idea about emotion?
What was cannon's view on emotion?
- He created the thalamic theory
- the thalamus is seen as the emotion area
- here information comes together and then gives a signal to the cortex
- a student of him, bard, changed it to the hypothalamus
What was the view on the hypothalamus and the cortex from 1930-1950?
- Hypothalamus:
- Emotions, drives, irrationality, unconsciousness
- Cortex:
- Ratio, control, consciousness
What did maclean do for neuroscience?
- He created the visceral brain, later changed to limbic system
- the idea is that the subcortical areas have a lot of connections with eachother and cortical areas
- he combined this idea with psychotherapy
- he stated that the visceral brain caused the id and that the cortical areas were the 'word brain' (so ego?)
How did maclean use his theory to describe certain disorders?
- Neurotics: were stuck in the genital phase, but were still able to express their problems in words -> 'reduction of traffic of the autonomic circuits'
- Psychosomatics: couldn't put it into words properly, so they only expressed themselves with organ language: 'chronic unexpressed rage' then led to hypertension
How did hebb contribute to neuroscience
- He invented what fires together wires together
- as the connection between neuron A and neuron B is used more often, it becomes stronger
- So the network is not static, but evolves as a function of input from other parts of the brain and the environment
- this idea of long term potentiation was biologically confirmed later on
How are the ideas on neurons combined in computer networks?
- The combination of insights from Hebb, McCulloch and Pitts led to neural networks
- With fairly simple principles, neural networks appear to be able to learn elementary tasks well
- This is done by 'rewarding' good responses by strengthening the connections used
What was a problem with computer simulations of neural networks and how was this solved?
- Each additional layer made the model more complicated
- but with today's super powerful computers, more and more layers can be added
- Simulations are becoming more realistic & performance better
What are the laws of alexander luria?
- Law of hierarchical structure: Cortical areas have a dominant role in relation to secondary, lower-lying areas
- Law of diminishing specificity: The further information is processed in the brain, the less specific, global and abstract it will be
- Law of progressive lateralization: in the (cortical) hemispheres more functional lateralization can be found than in lower lying areas
What are the current views on how the brain works?
- To a certain extent functional specialization
- Most mental processes depend on multiple functional areas
- Most areas contribute to different functions
- Hierarchy in terms of integration and abstraction, not in terms of importance
- Dynamic (both at neuronal and functional level)
How did berger contribute to neuroscience?
What was valenstein's critique on the way people looked at the relation of serotonin and dopamine in mental disorders?
- He didn't like the fact that a causal relation was implemented;
- Serotonin deficiency theory of depression: too little serotonin causes depression
- Dopamine theory of schizophrenia: too much dopamine causes schizophrenia
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