Theories of Counseling and the Helping Relationship

Freudians refer to the ego as
a.the executive administrator of the personality and the reality principle.
b.the guardian angel of the mind.
c.the pleasure principle.
d.the seat of libido.

a.the executive administrator of the personality and the reality principle.

Some scholars refer to the ego as the “executive administrator” since it governs or acts as a police officer to control the impulses from the id (instincts) and the superego (the conscience). The ego is a mediator. The ego is also called the reality principle and houses the individual’s identity. Choices “d” and “c” describes the id. And just in case you chose choice “b,” I can only say, “the guardian angel of the mind”—get serious, I just made it up!”

Freud’s theory speaks of Eros and Thanatos. A client who threatens a self-destructive act is being ruled primarily by
a.Eros.
b.Eros and the id.
c.Thanatos.
d.both Eros and Thanatos.

c.Thanatos.

Is it Greek or is it Freudian theory? You decide. Eros is the Greek god of the love of life. To the Freudians this means self-preservation. Thanatos is the Greek word for death. Later Freudian writings use the word to describe a death wish or what is sometimes called the death instinct. Today we call specialists who study death thanatologists.

The id is present at birth and never matures. It operates mainly out of awareness to satisfy instinctual needs according to the
a.reality principle.
b.notion of transference.
c.Eros principle.
d.pleasure principle.

d.pleasure principle.

The id is the pleasure principle, the ego is the reality principle, and the superego is the ego ideal.

If you think of the mind as a seesaw, then the fulcrum or balancing apparatus would be the
a.id, which has no concept of rationality or time.
b.ego.
c.superego, which judges behavior as right or wrong.
d.BASIC-ID.

b.ego.

If you missed this one, review the answer to question 205. Counselor educators often utilize the seesaw or fulcrum analogy when explaining the relationship of the id, ego, and superego.

A therapist who says to a patient, “Say whatever comes to mind,” is practicing

a.directive counseling.
b.TA.
c.paraphrasing.
d.free association.

d.free association.

Free association is literally defined as instructing the client to say whatever comes to mind. True to the tinsel town version, classical analysts have the client (known as an analysand) lie on a couch and free associate. The analyst remains out of sight. This is more or less the antithesis of directive approaches (choice “a”) in which the client is asked to discuss certain material. Paraphrasing (choice “c”) results whenever a counselor restates a client’s message in the counselor’s own words.

The superego contains the ego ideal. The superego strives for , rather than like the id.
a.perfection; pleasure.
b.pleasure; perfection.
c.morals; ethics.
d.logic; reality.

a.perfection; pleasure.

The superego is more concerned with the ideal than what is real. The superego is composed of values, morals, and ideals of parents, caretakers, and society. And oh yes, as for choice “c,” the id ethical—with the possible exception of handling biological needs like hunger and thirst—never! The id is chaotic and has no sense of time.

Most scholars would assert that Freud’s 1900 work entitled The Interpretation of Dreams was his most influential work. Dreams have
a.manifest and latent content.
b.preconscious and unconscious factors.
c.id and ego.
d.superego and id.

a.manifest and latent content.

For Freud, the dream was the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind. According to Freud, the dream is composed of a surface meaning, which is the manifest content, and then a hidden meaning or so-called latent content. In therapy, dream work consists of deciphering the hidden meaning of the dream (e.g., symbolism) so the individual can be aware of unconscious motives, impulses, desires, and conflicts.

The most controversial aspect of Freud’s theory is
a.catharsis.
b.the Oedipus complex.
c.the notion of the preconscious mind.
d.the interpretation of dreams.

b.the Oedipus complex.

This is known as the Electra complex when it occurs in females. Also be aware that the most important concept in Freud’s theory is the unconscious mind.

Suppression differs from repression in that
a.suppression is stronger.

b.repression only occurs in children.
c.repression is automatic or involuntary.
d.all of the above.

c.repression is automatic or involuntary.

If you missed this one, review question 222. Some exams refer to suppression as denial.

A master’s level counselor lands an entry level counseling job in an agency in a warm climate. Her office is not air conditioned, but the counselor insists she likes this because sweating really helps to keep her weight in check. This illuminates
a.sour grapes rationalization.
b.sweet lemon rationalization.
c.repression.
d.sublimation.

b.sweet lemon rationalization.

Review the previous question if you missed this. And here’s a wonderful memory device. In our society we overrate the value of (or at least overeat) sweets in our diet. In the sweet lemon variety of rationalization the person overrates the situation. In this question the counselor is essentially saying, “Oh, gee, I just love to sweat, it keeps the water weight off of me and keeps my weight down.” Right; and lemons taste sweet—dream on!

A teenager who had his heart set on winning a tennis match broke his arm in an auto accident. He sends in an entry form to play in the competition which begins just days after the accident. His behavior is influenced by
a.denial.
b.displacement of anger.
c.sublimation.
d.organ inferiority.

a.denial.

This is classic denial. The tennis player is failing to face reality. Organ inferiority (choice “d”) is usually associated with the work of Alfred Adler, who pioneered a theory known as “individual psychology.”

________ is like looking in a mirror but thinking you are looking out a window.
a.Repression.
b.Sour grapes rationalization.
c.Projection.
d.Denial.

c.Projection.

Simply put, the person who engages in projection attributes unacceptable qualities of his or her own to others. All of the answer choices are considered defense mechanisms.

Mark is obsessed with stamping out pornography. He is unconsciously involved in this cause so that he can view the material. This is
a.reaction formation.
b.introjection.
c.projection.
d.rationalization.

a.reaction formation.

In reaction formation the person acts the opposite of the way he or she actually feels. An adult living with a very elderly parent, for example, may spend all his or her time caring for the parent when in reality the individual unconsciously would like to see the elderly person die.

Ted has always felt inferior intellectually. He currently works out at the gym at least four hours daily and is taking massive doses of dangerous steroids to build his muscles. The ego defense mechanism in action here is
a.reaction formation.
b.compensation.
c.projection.
d.rationalization.

b.compensation.

Compensation is evident when an individual attempts to develop or overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation (i.e., a perceived inferiority). The person secretly hopes that others will focus on the positives rather than the negative factors.

Jane feels very inferior. She is now president of the board at a shelter for the homeless. She seems to be obsessed with her work for the agency and spends every spare minute trying to help the cause. When asked to introduce herself in virtually any social situation, Jane invariably responds with, “I’m the president of the board for the homeless shelter.” Jane is engaging in
a.projection.
b.displacement.
c.introjection.
d.identification.

d.identification.

If this is unclear review the explanation under question 226.

A client who has incorporated his father’s values into his thought patterns is a product of
a.introjection.
b.repression.
c.rationalization.
d.displacement.

a.introjection.

Yes, by the time you’re finished wrestling with this set of questions you will definitely know your defense mechanisms! Sometimes introjection causes the person to accept an aggressor’s values. A prisoner of war might incorporate the value system of the enemy after a period of time.

The client’s tendency to inhibit or fight against the therapeutic process is known as
a.resistance.
b.sublimation.
c.projection.
d.individuation.

a.resistance.

A client who refuses to follow a counselor’s directives such as a homework assignment or completing a battery of tests would be a typical example of resistance, or what counselors call the “resistant client.”

The purpose of interpretation in counseling is to
a.help the therapist appear genuine.
b.make the clients aware of their unconscious processes.
c.make clients aware of nonverbal behaviors.
d.help clients understand feelings and behaviors related to childhood.

b.make the clients aware of their unconscious processes.

This is the kind of question that separates the men from the boys and the women from the girls. It is what is known as a “best answer” type of question. Although choices “c” and “d” are not necessarily incorrect, choice “b” is a textbook definition of interpretation.

The statement, “Sibling interaction may have more impact than parent/child interaction” describes
a.Sigmund Freud’s theory.
b.Alfred Adler’s theory.
c.insight.
d.Carl Jung’s theory.

b.Alfred Adler’s theory.

Adler, who broke with Freud in 1911, went on to found a number of child-guidance clinics in which he was able to observe children’s behavior directly. One criticism of Freud has been that his child development theories were not based on extensive research or observations of children’s behavior.

The personality types of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) are associated with the work of
a.psychoanalysis.
b.Freud.
c.Adler.
d.Jung.

d.Jung.

This test is literally given to several million persons each year! The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is said to be the most widely used measure of personality preferences and dispositions. The measure can be used to assess upper elementary children age 12 and over all the way through adulthood and yields a four-letter code, or “type,” based on four bipolar scales. The bipolar preference scales are extroversion/introversion; sensing (i.e., current perception)/intuition (i.e., future abstractions and possibilities); thinking/feeling; and judging (i.e., organizing and controlling the outside world)/perceiving (i.e., observing events).

Adler emphasized that people wish to belong. This is known as
a.superiority.
b.social connectedness.
c.the collective unconscious.
d.animus.

b.social connectedness.

The Adlerian theory (choice “b”) suggests that we need one another. The collective unconscious in choice “c” is a term coined by C. G. Jung, which implies that all humans have “collected” universal inherited, unconscious neural patterns.

Jung spoke of a collective unconscious common to all men and women. The material that makes up the collective unconscious, which is passed from generation to generation, is known as
a.a hierarchy of needs.
b.instinctual.

c.paradox.
d.archetypes.

d.archetypes.

This is easy to remember if you keep the word archaic in mind. An archetype is actually a primal universal symbol, which means the same thing to all men and women (e.g., the cross). Jung perused literature and found that certain archetypes have appeared in fables, myths, dreams, and religious writings since the beginning of recorded history.

During a professional staff meeting, a counselor says he is worried that if techniques are implemented to stop a 6-year-old boy from sucking his thumb, then he will begin biting his nails or stuttering. The counselor
a.is using the logic set forth in gestalt therapy.
b.is using Donald Meichenbaum’s cognitive behavior modification.
c.is most likely a behaviorist concerned with symptom substitution.
d.is most likely an analytically trained counselor concerned with symptom substitution.

d.is most likely an analytically trained counselor concerned with symptom substitution.

The answer only can be choice “d” inasmuch as symptom substitution is a psychoanalytic concept. According to the theory, if you merely deal with the symptom another symptom will manifest itself since the real problem is in the unconscious mind. Behaviorists do strive for symptom reduction and do not believe in the concept of symptom substitution.

An eclectic counselor
a.is analytic.
b.is behavioristic.
c.attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client’s attributes, resources, and situation.
d.insists on including all family members in the treatment.

c.attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client’s attributes, resources, and situation.

An eclectic counselor uses theories and techniques from several models of intervention, rather than simply relying on one. An eclectic counselor, for example, would not say, “I’m a Rogerian,” or “I see myself as a strict behavior therapist.” The eclectic counselor uses “the best from every approach.” Research indicates that about 50% of all therapists claim to be eclectic, and a number of studies indicate eclecticism is on the rise.

The word eclectic is most closely associated with
a.Frederick C. Thorne.
b.Freud.
c.Piaget.
d.Skinner.

a.Frederick C. Thorne.

It is very important to note that Thorne felt that true eclecticism was much more than “a hodgepodge of facts”; it needed to be rigidly scientific. Thorne preferred the term psychological case handling rather than psychotherapy, as he felt the efficacy of psychotherapy had not been scientifically demonstrated.

A counselor who is obsessed with the fact that a client missed his or her session is the victim of
a.cognitive dissonance.
b.transference.
c.countertransference.
d.positive transference.

c.countertransference.

In countertransference the counselor’s past is projected onto the client and the helper’s objectivity suffers markedly. A counselor who falls in love with a client or feels extreme anger toward a client is generally considered a victim of countertransference. Choice “a,” cognitive dissonance, suggests that humans will feel quite uncomfortable if they have two incompatible or inconsistent beliefs and thus the person will be motivated to reduce the dissonance.

Classical conditioning relates to the work of
a.E. G. Williamson.
b.B. F. Skinner.
c.Frankl.

d.Ivan Pavlov.

d.Ivan Pavlov.

Interestingly enough, Pavlov won a Nobel Prize not for his work in classical conditioning but for his research on the digestive system. Choice “a,” E. G. Williamson, is the father of the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint. Popular some years ago, especially with career counselors, this approach attempts to match the client’s traits with a career. A word to the wise: Many exams will bill this as the “trait factor” approach.

Skinner’s operant conditioning is also referred to as
a.instrumental learning.
b.classical conditioning.
c.cognitive learning.
d.learning via insight.

a.instrumental learning.

One possible memory device here would be that Skinner’s last name has an “i” as does the word instrumental, whereas the word Pavlov doesn’t.

Respondent behavior refers to
a.reflexes.
b.operants.
c.a type of phobia.
d.punishment.

a.reflexes.

Okay, so you didn’t fall in love with my memory device for the last question. Never fear; here’s another way to go about it. Pavlov’s theory involves mainly “reflexes,” such as in the experiment where the dog salivates. The word reflex begins with an “r” and so does the word respondent. The bottom line: Pavlovian conditioning is respondent while Skinner’s is instrumental/operant. (PS.: Please don’t read this if you get confused easily, but the term respondent is generally accredited to Skinner, although it applies to the theoretical notions of Pavlovian conditioning.)

Punishment
a.is the same as negative reinforcement.
b.is much more effective than reinforcement.
c.decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.
d.is used extensively in reality therapy.

c.decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

A little review never hurt anybody. To set the record straight, behavior modifiers value reinforcement over punishment. William Glasser, M.D., the father of reality therapy, lists eight steps for effective treatment, of which step 7 admonishes “not to punish.”

In Pavlov’s famous experiment using dogs, the bell was the , and the meat was the .
a.CS; UCS
b.UCS; CS

c.CR; UCS
d.UCS; CR

a.CS; UCS

Ah, remember my memory device from the beginning of this book. It went like this: “In the U.S. we eat a lot of meat.” In the Pavlovian experiment, the U.S. (which is sometimes written UCS) is the unconditioned (think unlearned) stimulus, or the meat.

Many researchers have tried putting the UCS (i.e., the meat) before the CS (i.e., the bell). This usually results in
a.increased learning.
b.anger on the part of the dog.
c.experimental neurosis.
link3 conditioning.

d.no conditioning.

Whether you put the cart before the horse, “u” before “c” in the alphabet, or the UCS before the CS, it just doesn’t work. This is called backward conditioning. Generally backward conditioning is ineffective and doesn’t work. Note: The exam you are taking could refer to the typical classical conditioning process where the CS comes before the UCS as “forward conditioning” to distinguish it from “backward conditioning.”

John B. Watson’s name is associated with
a.Little Hans.
b.Anna O.
c.Little Albert.
d.b and c.

c.Little Albert.

The significance of the Little Albert case was that it demonstrated that fears were “learned” and not the result of some unconscious conflict.

In general, behavior modification strategies are based heavily on , while behavior therapy emphasizes .
a.instrumental conditioning; classical conditioning
b.Pavlovian principles; Skinnerian principles
c.Skinnerian principles; Pavlovian principles
d.a and c

d.a and c

Technically, behavior modification is Skinnerian (i.e., operant, instrumental), while behavior therapy is Pavlovian (i.e., classical, respondent).

A behavioristic counselor decides upon aversive conditioning as the treatment of choice for a gentleman who wishes to give up smoking. The counselor begins by taking a baseline. This is accomplished
a.using hypnosis.
b.by charting the occurrence of the behavior prior to any therapeutic intervention.
c.using a biofeedback device.
d.counterconditioning.

b.by charting the occurrence of the behavior prior to any therapeutic intervention.

The baseline indicates the frequency of the behavior untreated and is sometimes signified in the literature on a chart using an upper case letter A.

The significance of the Little Albert experiment by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner was that
a.a phobia could be a learned behavior.
b.it provided concrete proof that Skinner’s model was correct.
c.it provided concrete proof that Pavlov’s model was correct.
d.none of the above.

a.a phobia could be a learned behavior.

The psychoanalytic or Freudian theory espoused the notion that a fear was the result of an unconscious conflict. This is why analytic psychology is often called “depth psychology.” Something is assumed to be wrong deep below the level of awareness.

John B. Watson is to cause as Mary Cover Jones is to
a.cure.
b.Skinner.
c.Piaget.
d.NLP.

a.cure.

John B. Watson demonstrated that a phobic reaction was “learned,” while Mary Cover Jones demonstrated that “learning” could serve as a treatment for a phobic reaction. Neurolinguistic programming (NLP) is the brainchild of linguistics professor John Grinder and mathematician/computer expert John Bandler. These outsiders to the helping professions watched expert helpers, most notably, Virginia Satir, Milton H. Erickson, and Fritz Perls to discover what these therapists really did rather than what they said they did.

In the famous Little Albert experiment, a child was conditioned to fear a harmless white furry animal. Historical accounts indicate that the child also began to fear a Santa Claus mask. This would demonstrate
a.panic disorder with agoraphobia.
b.stimulus generalization.
c.an adjustment reaction.
d.stimulus discrimination.

b.stimulus generalization.

This is simple enough to remember, since in stimulus generalization the fear “generalizes.” In other words, a Santa Claus mask is white and furry and somewhat similar to a furry white animal, and hence produces the same fearful reaction in the child.

A counselor who says he or she practices depth psychology technically bases his or her treatment on
a.Pavlov’s dogs.
b.Mary Cover Jones.
c.John B. Watson.
d.Freud’s topographic hypothesis.

d.Freud’s topographic hypothesis.

The process of elimination can work wonders here. Even if you couldn’t distinguish Freud’s topographic theory from a hole in the ground you could answer this question by eliminating choices “a,” “b,” and “c” based on the fact that Pavlov, Jones, and Watson were pioneers in the behaviorist movement.

A client who is having panic attacks is told to practice relaxing his jaw muscle for three minutes per day. The counselor here is using
a.concreteness.
b.a directive.
c.interpretation.
d.parroting.

b.a directive.

When used in the context of counseling, a directive is merely a suggestion. Choice “d” is a no-no in effective counseling. Parroting is a misuse of paraphrasing. In parroting, the counselor restates the client’s message back verbatim. The problem? Well, research shows parroting is for the birds! Clients who were the victims of parroting were bored and uncomfortable during the session, and sometimes felt angry toward the counselor.

_______ is a biofeedback device.
a.A bathroom scale
b.A DVD player
c.A digital clock
d.An analyst’s couch

a.A bathroom scale

Biofeedback does not change the client, it merely provides the client and helper with biological information. A scale and a mirror are two simple examples. In counseling, biofeedback devices are used primarily to teach clients to relax or to control autonomic (i.e., automatic) nervous system functions such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature.

Johnny just loves M&Ms but doesn’t do his homework. The school counselor thus instructs Johnny’s mom to give the child a bag of M&Ms every night after he finishes his homework. This is an example of
a.punishment.
b.biofeedback.
c.a Pavlovian strategy.
d.positive reinforcement.

d.positive reinforcement.

The idea of any reinforcer (positive or negative) is to increase or strengthen the behavior. In this case something is added to the behavior so it would be “positive reinforcement.” At first a behavior modifier will reinforce every behavior. This is known as a continuous schedule of reinforcement. After a while the client will be given a schedule of reinforcement that does not reinforce every desirable action. This process is sometimes referred to as “thinning,” or an intermittent schedule of reinforcement.

Genuineness, or congruence, is really
a.identical to concreteness.

b.selective empathy.
c.the counselor’s ability to be himself or herself.
d.an archaic Freudian notion.

c.the counselor’s ability to be himself or herself.

The counselor who is congruent is real and authentic. This is a counselor who is not playing a role and is not putting up a facade.

When something is added following an operant, it is known as a , and when something is taken away it is called a .
a.negative reinforcer; positive reinforcer
b.positive reinforcer; negative reinforcer
c.extinction; shaping
d.classical conditioning; operant conditioning

b.positive reinforcer; negative reinforcer

If you’re getting sick of the word operant don’t blame me, it’s B. F. Skinner’s label. Any behavior which is not elicited by an obvious stimulus is an operant. Most behaviors are indeed operants. Skinner differentiated operants from “respondents.” A respondent is the consequence of a known stimulus. A dog salivating to food or the pupil in your eye enlarging when you walk into a dark room are examples of respondents. Now you know why Pavlovian conditioning has been called “respondent conditioning.”

A counselor who wanted to teach a client to produce alpha waves for relaxation would utilize
a.EMG feedback.
b.GSR feedback.
c.EEG feedback.
d.EKG feedback.

c.EEG feedback.

EEG is used to secure feedback related to brain wave rhythms.

The two basic classes of intermittent reinforcement schedules are the , based on the number of responses and the , based on the time elapsed.
a.ratio; interval
b.interval; ratio
c.continuous; ratio
d.interval; continuous

a.ratio; interval

The two basic classes of intermittent or partial reinforcement are ratio and interval. You can remember that “interval” is based on time rather than the number of responses, since in this society we use the phrase “time interval.” (Note: The terms fixed and variable are often used with ratio and interval. “Fixed” implies that the reinforcement always takes place after a fixed time or number of responses, while “variable” implies that an average number of responses or times may be used.)

An alcoholic is given Antabuse, which is a drug that causes nausea when paired with alcohol. This technique is called
a.systematic desensitization.
b.biofeedback.
c.back-up reinforcement.
d.aversive conditioning.

d.aversive conditioning.

The idea here is to pair the alcohol with an aversive, somewhat unpleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction of drinking it. Ethical dilemmas are common when using this technique. Some smoking clinics, for example, that used electric shock as a noxious aversive stimulus have been shut down. Imagine a client who comes to the clinic and experiences a heart attack from the treatment process! Some clients have died from Antabuse. Techniques like these are known as “in vivo aversive conditioning” since they are not performed in the imagination.

A counselor decides to treat a client’s phobia of flying utilizing Wolpe’s technique of systematic desensitization. The first step in the anxiety hierarchy items would be
a.imagining that she is calling the airlines for reservations.
b.imagining that she is boarding the plane.
c.imagining a flight in an airplane.
d.an actual flight in an airplane.

a.imagining that she is calling the airlines for reservations.

In systematic desensitization the order of the hierarchy is from least anxiety-arousing to the most anxiety-evoking items. Behaviorists note that the ideal hierarchy has 10 to 15 evenly spaced items. Therefore, in everyday plain English, to a person who has a fear of flying, imagining a phone call to secure reservations is certainly less anxiety-producing than imagining a flight, boarding a plane, or soaring through the sky in a supersonic jet airplane.

Behavior therapists often shy away from punishment because
a.ACA ethics forbid the use of this technique.
b.NBCC ethics prohibit the use of operant conditioning.
c.extinction works more quickly.
d.the effects of punishment are usually temporary and it teaches aggression.

d.the effects of punishment are usually temporary and it teaches aggression.

The great behavior modifier B. F. Skinner did not believe punishment was very effective. He felt that after the punishment was administered the behavior would manifest itself once again. Positive measures are seen as more effective than punishment. If punishment is used, remember that it does not cause the person (or other animal for that matter) to unlearn the behavior, and it should be used along with positive reinforcing measures.

A neophyte counselor discovers that her clients invariably give yes and no answers to her questions. The problem is most likely that
a.the counselor is sympathetic rather than empathetic.
b.the counselor is utilizing too many closed-ended questions.
c.the counselor’s timing is poor in terms of interpretation.
d.she is summarizing too early in the counseling process.

b.the counselor is utilizing too many closed-ended questions.

A closed-ended question can be answered with “yes” or “no.” If a counselor asks, “Is your depression lifting?” the client can easily respond with a “yes” or a “no.” Counselors prefer open-ended questions, which produce more information. If the aforementioned counselor wanted to rephrase the question in an open-ended manner, she could ask, “Can you tell me about the things in your life you find so depressing?”

Although behavior therapy purports to be highly scientific, it has been criticized on the grounds that it is reductionistic, simplistic, and does not deal with underlying causes. Existential therapy, on the other hand, has been criticized for
a.being too short-term.
b.overemphasizing techniques.
c.ignoring group strategies.
d.being too vague regarding techniques and procedures.

d.being too vague regarding techniques and procedures.

Existential counseling is more of a philosophy of helping than a grab bag of specific intervention strategies. Critics charge that it is not a systematic approach to treatment. The behaviorists assert that it is abstract and not scientific. The approach rejects traditional diagnosis and assessment procedures.

Existentialists focus primarily on
a.the teenage years.
b.the client’s perception in the here-and-now.
c.childhood traumas.
d.uplifting childhood memories.

b.the client’s perception in the here-and-now.

The focus is on what the person can ultimately become. The present and even the future are emphasized. The key to change is seen as self-determination.

Existential counselors as well as Rogerian Person-Centered counselors adhere to what Buber called the I-Thou relationship, which asserts that
a.the counselor is seen as a highly trained expert with answers.
b.the relationship is vertical.
c.the relationship is horizontal.
d.empathy is not necessary.

c.the relationship is horizontal.

A horizontal relationship (e.g., I-Thou) assumes equality between persons. In a vertical relationship the counselor is viewed as an expert. Choice “d” is incorrect, as the existentialists stress nonthreatening empathy as necessary for successful therapy.

Frankl is an existentialist. So are
a.Ellis and Perls.
b.Perls and Stampfl.
c.Yalom and May.
d.Janov and Beck.

c.Yalom and May.

Rollo May introduced existential therapy in the United States. Irvin Yalom, another existentialist, is noted for his work in group therapy. In his book, Love’s Executioner, he reveals his approach to treatment with some of his most intriguing clients. Other names that appear in the answer choices tothis question include: Fritz Perls, the Father of gestalt therapy; Albert Ellis, who pioneered REBT; Arthur Janov, noted for his primal scream therapy; and Aaron T. Beck, whose cognitive therapy resembles REBT; if the name Stampfl doesn’t ring a bell, review question 310.

Existentialists speak of three worlds, the Umwelt or the world, the Mitwelt or the world, and the Eigenwelt or the world.
a.unconscious; preconscious; conscious
b.id; ego; superego
c.self-identity; relationship; physical
d.physical; relationship; identity

d.physical; relationship; identity

Try this if you are searching for a memory device. Mitwelt has the prefix “mi,” which sounds like “my” as in “my wife” or “my brother” or “my son”; the “my” shows possessiveness indicative of a “relationship.” Eigenwelt sounds suspiciously like the word identity. By a process of elimination you would not need a memory device for the remaining term Umwelt (the physical and biological system).

Frankl’s experience in Nazi concentration camps taught him
a.the value of S-R psychological paradigms.
b.that you can’t control the environment, but you can control your response.
c.that blaming others can be truly therapeutic.
d.how to blame the environment for our difficulties.

b.that you can’t control the environment, but you can control your response.

From 1942 to 1945 Frankl was a prisoner in German concentration camps, including Auschwitz and Dachau. Several of his relatives died in the camps. Frankl felt, nonetheless, that suffering would be transformed into achievement and creativity.

Existential counselors emphasize the clients’
a.free choice, decision, and will.
b.transference.
c.slips of tongue.
d.latent dream symbolism.

a.free choice, decision, and will.

Logotherapists often use the term noogenic neurosis, which is the frustration of the will to meaning. The counselor assists the client to find meaning in life so the client can write his or her own life story by making meaningful choices. When exploring the meaning of life some anxiety is normal. Moreover, death is not seen as an evil concept but rather an entity which gives meaning to the process of life.

Existential theorists speak of phenomenology, which refers to the client’s internal personal experience of events, and ontology, which is
a.mental visualization for the treatment of cancer.
b.the impact of cancer on emotions.
c.a cancerous growth in the brain.
d.the philosophy of being and existing.

d.the philosophy of being and existing.

The metaphysical study of life experience is called ontology. Please do not confuse this with “oncology” (hinted at in choice “c”), which is the medical study of tumors.

All of these statements regarding reality therapy are true except
a.the client’s childhood is explored.
b.excuses are not accepted.
c.the unconscious is avoided.
d.therapy is concerned primarily with the here-and-now.

a.the client’s childhood is explored.

According to choice theory the person’s childhood may have contributed to the problem. However, the past is never really the problem. The client’s childhood is usually not explored, and if the client brings it up, the reality therapist will often try to emphasize childhood successes, feeling that an analysis of the difficulties could actually reinforce maladaptive patterns. Reality therapy is a present moment form of counseling which focuses on the here-and-now. According to a strict behaviorist, the environment controls behavior. According to Glasser, the individual controls the environment.

A counselor who repeats what a client has stated in the counselor’s own words is using
a.contracting.
b.confrontation.
c.paraphrasing.
d.parroting.

c.paraphrasing.

Communications experts agree that paraphrasing has taken place when a client’s thoughts and feelings are restated in the counselor’s own words. Contracting (choice “a”) with a client in a verbal or written manner is a technique favored by behavior therapists. In reality therapy, a plan is created to help the client master his or her target behaviors.

Most experts would agree that ________ is most threatening for clients as well as counselors.
a.paraphrasing by the counselor
b.open-ended questions
c.role rehearsal
d.silence

d.silence

Veteran counselors believe that some of the most valuable verbalizations occur after a period of silence. Silence gives the client time to assimilate the counseling process and is helpful in nondirective therapies because it coaxes the client to direct the session.

When the past is discussed in reality therapy, the focus is on
a.failures.
b.irrational internal verbalizations.
c.transference issues.
d.successful behaviors.

d.successful behaviors.

Glasser believes that dwelling on past failures can reinforce a negative self-concept, or what reality therapists have termed the “failure identity.”

Glasser’s position on mental illness is that
a.it is best explained by DSM guidelines.
b.diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible.
d.it is best explained by ICD categories.
link3 is the result of a deep internal conflict.

b.diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible.

Reality therapy has little use for the formal diagnostic process, or what is known in clinical circles as “nosology.” The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM) and the International Classification of Disease (ICD) provide the guidelines for diagnosis of clients. Glasser rejected this traditional medical model of disease.

The relationship that the therapist has with the client in reality therapy is
a.detached but very empathic.
b.like that of a warm caring mother.
c.like that of a friend who asks what is wrong.
d.friendly, nevertheless punishment is used when it is appropriate.

c.like that of a friend who asks what is wrong.

Unlike the detached psychoanalyst, the reality therapist literally makes friends with the client. This is the first of eight steps utilized in this model. Step 7 is refusing to use punishment, making choice “d” a no go here.

Glasser’s theory was popularized in educational circles after he wrote
a.Choice Theory.
b.The Interpretation of Dreams.
c.Positive Addiction.
d.Schools Without Failure.

d.Schools Without Failure.

Glasser also authored choices “a” and “c” as well as his original 1965 classic, Reality Therapy, and an update of the theory in his 2000 book Reality Therapy in Action. Choice “b” has nothing to do with reality therapy but generally is quoted as Freud’s most influential work, often dubbed as “the Bible of Psychoanalysis.”

Glasser suggested eight steps in the reality therapy process. The final step asserts
a.that the client and counselor be persistent and never give up.
b.that some problems will not respond to any known plan of action.
c.that counselors should contract with the client for no more than five counseling sessions.
d.that a client who does not respond to the first seven steps is most likely a borderline personality.

a.that the client and counselor be persistent and never give up.

Even when the client wants to give up, the therapist does not. Glasser’s theory has been criticized on the basis that it is too simplistic. Unlike most of the other schools of thought discussed in this guide, Reality therapy has not been included in some texts and dictionaries of psychology.

According to Glasser, a positive addiction might be
a.jogging
b.gambling.
c.playing the office football pool.
d.playing professional football.

a.jogging

Negative addictions like alcoholism and drug abuse are often mentioned in mental health literature. Glasser stressed that people can be addicted to positive behaviors and this helps to instill self-confidence. A positive addiction must be a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about one hour each day. Moreover, the person can see that performing the activity will lead to personal improvement. Lastly, the person needs to be capable of performing the activity without becoming self-critical.

When a counselor reviews what has transpired in past counseling sessions he or she is using
a.paraphrasing.
b.reflection.
c.summarization.
d.confrontation.

c.summarization.

When a counselor summarizes, he or she is bringing together a number of ideas. This summarization also could deal strictly with the material in a single session of counseling. Summarization constitutes a “synthesis” regarding the general tone or feeling of the helping process. Ivey recommends summarization at two or three points during each session and at the close of the session. Summarization is really the ability to condense the material to capture the essence of the therapeutic exchange.

Glasser felt the responsible person will have a _______ identity.

a.failure
b.success
c.diffused
d.crisis-oriented

b.success

The individual who possesses a success identity feels worthy and significant to others. Identity is a person’s most important psychological need. A person who is irresponsible, and thus frustrated in an attempt to feel loved and worthwhile, will develop a failure identity and a faulty perception of reality. The client is encouraged to assume responsibility for his or her own happiness (i.e., by learning to fulfill personal needs without depriving others of their need fulfillment).

William Glasser, M.D., is to reality therapy as Albert Ellis, Ph.D., is to
a.Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT).
b.Transactional analysis (TA).
c.Assertiveness training (AT).
d.Gestalt therapy.

a.Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT).

Analytically trained New York clinical psychologist Ellis is the Father of REBT, which assumes that the client’s emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts and ideas. The cure is a high dose of rational thinking.

In Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive behavior therapy, the client is taught to change cognitions, also known as
a.self-talk.
b.internal verbalizations.
c.impulses.
d.a and b.

d.a and b.

The credo here is a simple one: Talk sense to yourself. When you change your thinking you can change your life.

The ABC theory of personality postulates that the intervention that occurs at D, leads to E, .
a.the dogmatic attitude; effective behavior
b.direct living; evaluation

c.disputing the irrational behavior at B; a new emotional consequence
d.the emotional disease; a new emotional consequence

c.disputing the irrational behavior at B; a new emotional consequence

Some of the literature by Ellis refers to E as “an effective new philosophy of life.” The theory, then, is that you create your own present emotional and behavioral difficulties. And talk about optimistic: Ellis believes that no matter how bad life seems, you always—that’s right, always—have the power to ameliorate intense feelings of despair, anxiety, and hostility.

Shoulds and oughts are ________ according to Ellis.
a.musturbations
b.masturbations
c.awfulizations
d.rational

a.musturbations

When a preference becomes a dogmatic must or a should, then you can bet that the client is in for a case of emotional disturbance. Choice “c” is a word commonly used in REBT. Awfulizing or catastrophizing is the act of telling yourself how difficult, terrible, and horrendous a given situation really is. And by the way, if you marked choice “b” you better sign up for a sex ed course. Ellis, also known for his work in sexology, humorously insists that musturbation is more pernicious than masturbation.

A client says, “I lost my job and it’s the most terrible thing in the world.” This client is engaging in
a.rational self-talk.
b.self-induced empathy.
c.cognitive restructuring.
d.awfulizing and terriblizing, also known as catastrophizing.

d.awfulizing and terriblizing, also known as catastrophizing.

Choice “d” would occur at point B, the belief system, in the ABC model of personality. Choice “c,” cognitive restructuring, usually refers to Donald Meichenbaum’s approach, which is similar to REBT. Restructuring takes place when the client begins thinking in a healthy new way using different internal dialogue. Choice “a” is the most inappropriate answer since Ellis considers awfulizing or terriblizing “irrational” unhealthy behavior.

Bibliotherapy is a form of
a.psychodynamic intervention.
b.homework.
c.displacement.
d.musturbation.

b.homework.

Yes, homework. I’m sure the word rings a bell if you think back to graduate school. In the context of counseling, homework takes place whenever the counselor gives the client an assignment which is to be done outside the counseling session. Bibliotherapy is a prime example. Therapies that basically “teach” the client (e.g., REBT) are known as “didactic” models of treatment.

Therapeutic cognitive restructuring really refers to
a.refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational ones.
b.keeping a journal of irrational thoughts.
c.allowing the client to purge feelings.
d.uncovering relevant unconscious material.

a.refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational ones.

This is the process of changing your thoughts ergo your feelings via self-talk, or what Ellis often called internal verbalizations. REBT clients often receive emotional control cards from their therapist that delineate irrational ideas and what one can think rationally to combat these unhealthy thoughts. The act of changing the client’s mode of thinking is sometimes called cognitive disputation. REBT therapists also use imaginal disputation (i.e., imagery to help with the process) and urge clients to behave in different patterns (i.e., behavioral disputation).

Internal verbalizations are to REBT as ________ are to Glasser’s Choice Theory.
a.contracting
b.pictures in your mind
c.lack of punishment
d.a therapeutic plan

b.pictures in your mind

A matter of semantics? Perhaps. Glasser insists that behavior is internally motivated and we choose our actions.

The Adult ego state
a.contains the “shoulds” and “oughts.”
b.is the seat of feelings.
c.is like Freud’s superego.
d.processes facts and does not focus on feelings.

d.processes facts and does not focus on feelings.

The Adult corresponds to Freud’s ego. It is also known as the “neopsyche.” It is rational, logical, and does not focus on feelings. Choices “a” and “c” describe the Parent ego state.

A TA counselor and a strict behaviorist are both in the same case conference to staff a client. Which technique would the two most likely agree on when formulating a plan of action?
a.the empty chair technique.
b.an ego state analysis.
c.contracting.
d.formal assertiveness training.

c.contracting.

Using choice “a,” the empty chair technique, the person imagines that another individual is in a chair in front of him or her, and then the client talks to the person. The technique is popular in TA as well as in the gestalt model. Contracting, nevertheless, is the only technique listed that is used readily by TA and behavior therapists.

Gestalt Therapy, a paradigm that focuses on awareness in the here-and-now incorporates
a.psychodrama.
b.Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy, which asserts that maladaptive thinking creates emotional disturbance and thus clients should record dysfunctional thoughts.
c.Conditioned Reflex Therapy.
d.Client-Centered Therapy.

a.psychodrama.

Psychodrama incorporates role-playing into the treatment process. A client, for example, might act out an especially painful incident in his or her life. Psychodrama was invented by Jacob L. Moreno, who first coined the term group therapy in 1931. Gestalt therapists emphasize experiments and exercises.

According to gestalt therapists, a client who is angry at his wife for leaving him, and who makes a suicide attempt would be engaging in
a.sublimation.
b.a panic reaction.
c.retroflection.
d.repression.

c.retroflection.

Retroflection is the act of doing to yourself what you really wish to do to someone else. The psychoanalysts often say that the person who wishes to kill him-or herself really wants to kill someone else. True? Perhaps. Statistics now indicate that in cases of suicide, 4 out of every 100 begin with the person killing someone else!

Gestalt means
a.a group.
b.a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.
c.a dyad.
d.visual acuity.

b.a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.

Although there is no exact English translation, choice “b” roughly describes the nature of the concept. Gestalt also can imply that the integrated whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Perls suggested ________ which must be peeled away to reach emotional stability.
a.four layers of neurosis
b.three layers of neurosis
c.two layers of neurosis
d.five layers of neurosis

d.five layers of neurosis

Perls likened the process of therapy to that of peeling an onion. The person has a phony layer, a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), an impasse layer (the person feels struck), the implosive layer (willingness to expose the true self), and the explosive layer (person has relief due to authenticity.

Gestalt therapy emphasizes
a.cognitive-behavioral issues.
b.transference issues.
c.traumatic childhood memories.
d.awareness in the here-and-now and dream work.

d.awareness in the here-and-now and dream work.

Choice “a” is incorrect. The gestalt mode does not believe that a client can “think” one’s self out of unhappiness. The person must experience awareness for growth.

Most experts would agree that the peak period of competition between the various schools of counseling and therapy (e.g., gestalt, behavioristic, reality therapy, etc.) was during
a.the late 1970s.
b.the late 1960s.
c.the 1980s.
d.the mid-1950s.

b.the late 1960s.

In the 1950s, counseling—not testing—became the key guidance function. Moreover, the 1950s marked a golden age for developmental psychology. In the late 1960s the field was literally inundated with competing psychotherapies. In the 1970s biofeedback, behavior modification, and crisis hotlines flourished. And in the 1980s professionalism (e.g., licensing and improvement in professional organizations) was evident.

The relationship a client has with a gestalt therapist would most likely progress ________ than the relationship a client would have with a Rogerian counselor.
a.faster.
b.slower.
c.at the same pace.
d.a and b.

b.slower.

Because gestalt therapists are generally rather confrontational, theorists assume that the client/counselor relationship will progress at a slower rate. If you marked choice “d” I’d like to suggest that you read the answers more carefully. Answer “d,” is a synthesis of choice “a” and “b,” and choices “a” and “b” are contradictory.

Rogers’ approach is characterized as a(n) ________ approach.
a.existential or humanistic
b.cognitive
c.cognitive behavioral
d.neodynamic

a.existential or humanistic

Some exams will call humanistic psychology “third force psychology” because it was a reaction to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, the two initial forces at the time. In regard to choices “b” and “c,” it can be pointed out that cognitive approaches are generally more directive and do not give the client/counselor relationship as much emphasis as the Rogerians.

Rogers felt that ________ for client change to occur.
a.conditions must be in accordance with the problem.
b.three conditions are necessary.
c.nine conditions are necessary.
d.two conditions are necessary.

b.three conditions are necessary.

If you missed this one, take a break. You’ve been studying too long. When you’re refreshed, review the answer to question 388.

Person-centered counseling would prove least effective with:
a.a bright verbal male.
b.a bright verbal female.
c.a graduate student who had a knowledge of phrenology.
d.a client who is not very verbal.

d.a client who is not very verbal.

In choice “c,” the term phrenology refers to an early pseudoscientific psychological doctrine which asserted that one’s personality could be determined by the shape and configuration of the skull.

Counseling generally occurs in a clinical setting while consultation generally occurs in a ________ setting.
a.group
link1
c.continuing care
d.residential

b.work/organizational

Here again, the other answer choices are not necessarily incorrect; it is just that this choice “b” is the best answer. Counselors generally focus on a person or a group, while consultants focus more on issues. Another key factor is that in consultation work, empathy—although important—is overshadowed by genuineness and respect.

and created a program to help counselors learn accurate empathy.
a.Truax; Carkhuff
b.Rogers; Berenson
c.Rogers; Brill
d.Carkhuff; Satir

a.Truax; Carkhuff

Robert Carkhuff has been quoted time and time again for his statement that, “all helping is for better or worse.” Or as he says, “no helpee is left unchanged by any helping interaction.”

The human relations core for effective counseling includes
a.power, competence, and trustworthiness.
b.expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness.
c.empathy, positive regard (or respect), and genuineness.
d.self-image, self-talk, and attending behavior.

c.empathy, positive regard (or respect), and genuineness.

Choice “b” (remember?) is the social influence core. The purpose of this question is to make certain you are able to distinguish between the social influence core and the human relations core.

Theories of Counseling and the Helping Relationship

92 important questions on Theories of Counseling and the Helping Relationship

Freudians refer to the ego asa.the executive administrator of the personality and the reality principle.b.the guardian angel of the mind.c.the pleasure principle.d.the seat of libido.

Freud’s theory speaks of Eros and Thanatos. A client who threatens a self-destructive act is being ruled primarily bya.Eros.b.Eros and the id.c.Thanatos.d.both Eros and Thanatos.

The id is present at birth and never matures. It operates mainly out of awareness to satisfy instinctual needs according to thea.reality principle.b.notion of transference.c.Eros principle.d.pleasure principle.

If you think of the mind as a seesaw, then the fulcrum or balancing apparatus would be thea.id, which has no concept of rationality or time.b.ego.c.superego, which judges behavior as right or wrong.d.BASIC-ID.

A therapist who says to a patient, “Say whatever comes to mind,” is practicinga.directive counseling.b.TA.c.paraphrasing.d.free association.

The superego contains the ego ideal. The superego strives for ________, rather than ________ like the id.a.perfection; pleasure.b.pleasure; perfection.c.morals; ethics.d.logic; reality.

Most scholars would assert that Freud’s 1900 work entitled The Interpretation of Dreams was his most influential work. Dreams havea.manifest and latent content.b.preconscious and unconscious factors.c.id and ego.d.superego and id.

The most controversial aspect of Freud’s theory isa.catharsis.b.the Oedipus complex.c.the notion of the preconscious mind.d.the interpretation of dreams.

Suppression differs from repression in thata.suppression is stronger.b.repression only occurs in children.c.repression is automatic or involuntary.d.all of the above.

A teenager who had his heart set on winning a tennis match broke his arm in an auto accident. He sends in an entry form to play in the competition which begins just days after the accident. His behavior is influenced bya.denial.b.displacement of anger.c.sublimation.d.organ inferiority.

________ is like looking in a mirror but thinking you are looking out a window.a.Repression.b.Sour grapes rationalization.c.Projection.d.Denial.

Mark is obsessed with stamping out pornography. He is unconsciously involved in this cause so that he can view the material. This isa.reaction formation.b.introjection.c.projection.d.rationalization.

Ted has always felt inferior intellectually. He currently works out at the gym at least four hours daily and is taking massive doses of dangerous steroids to build his muscles. The ego defense mechanism in action here isa.reaction formation.b.compensation.c.projection.d.rationalization.

A client who has incorporated his father’s values into his thought patterns is a product ofa.introjection.b.repression.c.rationalization.d.displacement.

The client’s tendency to inhibit or fight against the therapeutic process is known asa.resistance.b.sublimation.c.projection.d.individuation.

The purpose of interpretation in counseling is toa.help the therapist appear genuine.b.make the clients aware of their unconscious processes.c.make clients aware of nonverbal behaviors.d.help clients understand feelings and behaviors related to childhood.

The statement, “Sibling interaction may have more impact than parent/child interaction” describesa.Sigmund Freud’s theory.b.Alfred Adler’s theory.c.insight.d.Carl Jung’s theory.

The personality types of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) are associated with the work ofa.psychoanalysis.b.Freud.c.Adler.d.Jung.

Adler emphasized that people wish to belong. This is known asa.superiority.b.social connectedness.c.the collective unconscious.d.animus.

Jung spoke of a collective unconscious common to all men and women. The material that makes up the collective unconscious, which is passed from generation to generation, is known asa.a hierarchy of needs.b.instinctual.c.paradox.d.archetypes.

An eclectic counselora.is analytic.b.is behavioristic.c.attempts to choose the best theoretical approach based on the client’s attributes, resources, and situation.d.insists on including all family members in the treatment.

The word eclectic is most closely associated witha.Frederick C. Thorne.b.Freud.c.Piaget.d.Skinner.

A counselor who is obsessed with the fact that a client missed his or her session is the victim ofa.cognitive dissonance.b.transference.c.countertransference.d.positive transference.

Classical conditioning relates to the work ofa.E. G. Williamson.b.B. F. Skinner.c.Frankl.d.Ivan Pavlov.

Skinner’s operant conditioning is also referred to asa.instrumental learning.b.classical conditioning.c.cognitive learning.d.learning via insight.

Respondent behavior refers toa.reflexes.b.operants.c.a type of phobia.d.punishment.

Punishmenta.is the same as negative reinforcement.b.is much more effective than reinforcement.c.decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.d.is used extensively in reality therapy.

In Pavlov’s famous experiment using dogs, the bell was the ________, and the meat was the ________.a.CS; UCSb.UCS; CSc.CR; UCSd.UCS; CR

Many researchers have tried putting the UCS (i.e., the meat) before the CS (i.e., the bell). This usually results ina.increased learning.b.anger on the part of the dog.c.experimental neurosis.link3 conditioning.

John B. Watson’s name is associated witha.Little Hans.b.Anna O.c.Little Albert.d.b and c.

In general, behavior modification strategies are based heavily on ________, while behavior therapy emphasizes ________.a.instrumental conditioning; classical conditioningb.Pavlovian principles; Skinnerian principlesc.Skinnerian principles; Pavlovian principlesd.a and c

The significance of the Little Albert experiment by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner was thata.a phobia could be a learned behavior.b.it provided concrete proof that Skinner’s model was correct.c.it provided concrete proof that Pavlov’s model was correct.d.none of the above.

John B. Watson is to cause as Mary Cover Jones is toa.cure.b.Skinner.c.Piaget.d.NLP.

A counselor who says he or she practices depth psychology technically bases his or her treatment ona.Pavlov’s dogs.b.Mary Cover Jones.c.John B. Watson.d.Freud’s topographic hypothesis.

A client who is having panic attacks is told to practice relaxing his jaw muscle for three minutes per day. The counselor here is usinga.concreteness.b.a directive.c.interpretation.d.parroting.

_______ is a biofeedback device.a.A bathroom scaleb.A DVD playerc.A digital clockd.An analyst’s couch

Johnny just loves M&Ms but doesn’t do his homework. The school counselor thus instructs Johnny’s mom to give the child a bag of M&Ms every night after he finishes his homework. This is an example ofa.punishment.b.biofeedback.c.a Pavlovian strategy.d.positive reinforcement.

Genuineness, or congruence, is reallya.identical to concreteness.b.selective empathy.c.the counselor’s ability to be himself or herself.d.an archaic Freudian notion.

When something is added following an operant, it is known as a ________, and when something is taken away it is called a ________.a.negative reinforcer; positive reinforcerb.positive reinforcer; negative reinforcerc.extinction; shapingd.classical conditioning; operant conditioning

A counselor who wanted to teach a client to produce alpha waves for relaxation would utilizea.EMG feedback.b.GSR feedback.c.EEG feedback.d.EKG feedback.

The two basic classes of intermittent reinforcement schedules are the ________, based on the number of responses and the ________, based on the time elapsed.a.ratio; intervalb.interval; ratioc.continuous; ratiod.interval; continuous

An alcoholic is given Antabuse, which is a drug that causes nausea when paired with alcohol. This technique is calleda.systematic desensitization.b.biofeedback.c.back-up reinforcement.d.aversive conditioning.

Behavior therapists often shy away from punishment becausea.ACA ethics forbid the use of this technique.b.NBCC ethics prohibit the use of operant conditioning.c.extinction works more quickly.d.the effects of punishment are usually temporary and it teaches aggression.

Existentialists focus primarily ona.the teenage years.b.the client’s perception in the here-and-now.c.childhood traumas.d.uplifting childhood memories.

Existential counselors as well as Rogerian Person-Centered counselors adhere to what Buber called the I-Thou relationship, which asserts thata.the counselor is seen as a highly trained expert with answers.b.the relationship is vertical.c.the relationship is horizontal.d.empathy is not necessary.

Frankl is an existentialist. So area.Ellis and Perls.b.Perls and Stampfl.c.Yalom and May.d.Janov and Beck.

Existentialists speak of three worlds, the Umwelt or the ________ world, the Mitwelt or the ________ world, and the Eigenwelt or the world.a.unconscious; preconscious; consciousb.id; ego; superegoc.self-identity; relationship; physicald.physical; relationship; identity

Frankl’s experience in Nazi concentration camps taught hima.the value of S-R psychological paradigms.b.that you can’t control the environment, but you can control your response.c.that blaming others can be truly therapeutic.d.how to blame the environment for our difficulties.

Existential counselors emphasize the clients’a.free choice, decision, and will.b.transference.c.slips of tongue.d.latent dream symbolism.

Existential theorists speak of phenomenology, which refers to the client’s internal personal experience of events, and ontology, which isa.mental visualization for the treatment of cancer.b.the impact of cancer on emotions.c.a cancerous growth in the brain.d.the philosophy of being and existing.

All of these statements regarding reality therapy are true excepta.the client’s childhood is explored.b.excuses are not accepted.c.the unconscious is avoided.d.therapy is concerned primarily with the here-and-now.

A counselor who repeats what a client has stated in the counselor’s own words is usinga.contracting.b.confrontation.c.paraphrasing.d.parroting.

Most experts would agree that ________ is most threatening for clients as well as counselors.a.paraphrasing by the counselorb.open-ended questionsc.role rehearsald.silence

When the past is discussed in reality therapy, the focus is ona.failures.b.irrational internal verbalizations.c.transference issues.d.successful behaviors.

Glasser’s position on mental illness is thata.it is best explained by DSM guidelines.b.diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible.d.it is best explained by ICD categories.link3 is the result of a deep internal conflict.

The relationship that the therapist has with the client in reality therapy isa.detached but very empathic.b.like that of a warm caring mother.c.like that of a friend who asks what is wrong.d.friendly, nevertheless punishment is used when it is appropriate.

Glasser’s theory was popularized in educational circles after he wrotea.Choice Theory.b.The Interpretation of Dreams.c.Positive Addiction.d.Schools Without Failure.

According to Glasser, a positive addiction might bea.joggingb.gambling.c.playing the office football pool.d.playing professional football.

When a counselor reviews what has transpired in past counseling sessions he or she is usinga.paraphrasing.b.reflection.c.summarization.d.confrontation.

Glasser felt the responsible person will have a _______ identity.a.failureb.successc.diffusedd.crisis-oriented

William Glasser, M.D., is to reality therapy as Albert Ellis, Ph.D., is toa.Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT).b.Transactional analysis (TA).c.Assertiveness training (AT).d.Gestalt therapy.

In Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive behavior therapy, the client is taught to change cognitions, also known asa.self-talk.b.internal verbalizations.c.impulses.d.a and b.

Shoulds and oughts are ________ according to Ellis.a.musturbationsb.masturbationsc.awfulizationsd.rational

A client says, “I lost my job and it’s the most terrible thing in the world.” This client is engaging ina.rational self-talk.b.self-induced empathy.c.cognitive restructuring.d.awfulizing and terriblizing, also known as catastrophizing.

Bibliotherapy is a form ofa.psychodynamic intervention.b.homework.c.displacement.d.musturbation.

Therapeutic cognitive restructuring really refers toa.refuting irrational ideas and replacing them with rational ones.b.keeping a journal of irrational thoughts.c.allowing the client to purge feelings.d.uncovering relevant unconscious material.

Internal verbalizations are to REBT as ________ are to Glasser’s Choice Theory.a.contractingb.pictures in your mindc.lack of punishmentd.a therapeutic plan

The Adult ego statea.contains the “shoulds” and “oughts.”b.is the seat of feelings.c.is like Freud’s superego.d.processes facts and does not focus on feelings.

A TA counselor and a strict behaviorist are both in the same case conference to staff a client. Which technique would the two most likely agree on when formulating a plan of action?a.the empty chair technique.b.an ego state analysis.c.contracting.d.formal assertiveness training.

According to gestalt therapists, a client who is angry at his wife for leaving him, and who makes a suicide attempt would be engaging ina.sublimation.b.a panic reaction.c.retroflection.d.repression.

Gestalt meansa.a group.b.a form, figure, or configuration unified as a whole.c.a dyad.d.visual acuity.

Perls suggested ________ which must be peeled away to reach emotional stability.a.four layers of neurosisb.three layers of neurosisc.two layers of neurosisd.five layers of neurosis

Gestalt therapy emphasizesa.cognitive-behavioral issues.b.transference issues.c.traumatic childhood memories.d.awareness in the here-and-now and dream work.

Most experts would agree that the peak period of competition between the various schools of counseling and therapy (e.g., gestalt, behavioristic, reality therapy, etc.) was duringa.the late 1970s.b.the late 1960s.c.the 1980s.d.the mid-1950s.

The relationship a client has with a gestalt therapist would most likely progress ________ than the relationship a client would have with a Rogerian counselor.a.faster.b.slower.c.at the same pace.d.a and b.

Rogers’ approach is characterized as a(n) ________ approach.a.existential or humanisticb.cognitivec.cognitive behaviorald.neodynamic

Rogers felt that ________ for client change to occur.a.conditions must be in accordance with the problem.b.three conditions are necessary.c.nine conditions are necessary.d.two conditions are necessary.

Person-centered counseling would prove least effective with:a.a bright verbal male.b.a bright verbal female.c.a graduate student who had a knowledge of phrenology.d.a client who is not very verbal.