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The impact of perceived risk on risk-reducing behaviours

Q: Models relating Risk Perceptions to Protective Behaviour

1. Protection motivation theory (PMT) 2. The extended parallel process model (EPPM)

Q: Threath appraisal (PMT model)

Refers to current risky behaviour. + perceived vulnerability (perceived likelihood of adverse outcome occurring; if lower, more likely to engage in risky behaviour; e.g. getting a STD ) + perceived severity (perceived extent of harm likely if adverse outcome occurs; e.g. 'i will just get meds' ) - perceived rewards (if higher, more likely to engage in risky behaviour; e.g. no discussion about condom use ) ________________________________________________________ = threat appraisal

Q: Coping appraisal (PMT model)

+ response efficacy (perceived effectiveness of risk-reducing behaviour at reducing threat; e.g. using condoms iwll prevent STD ) + self-efficacy (beliefs about one's ability to perform risk-reducing behaviour; e.g. I am able to use a condom when having sex ) - Response costs (beliefs about any physical or psychological costs reduce its likelyhood; e.g. the sexual experience is less intense when using a condom ) ____________________________________________________________ = coping appraisal

12 important questions on The impact of perceived risk on risk-reducing behaviours

Cigarette warning labels controversy

Providing graphic warnings provokes strong emotional reactions in smokers, which in turn increases quitting. In contrast, argued that çigarette warning labels are useless'. Argued that such warnings increase fear arousal, which makes smokers defensive, resulting in less behaviour change than if such warning labels were not used.

Models relating Risk Perceptions to Protective Behaviour

1. Protection motivation theory (PMT)

2. The extended parallel process model (EPPM)

Protection motivation theory (PMT)

Risk-reducing behaviour occurs when individuals have high protection motivation. Protection motivation is defined as a motive that arouses, sustains and directs activity, and is considered best measured by intentions for the relevant protective behaviour. Protection motivation arises as the result of combining two cognitive appraisals:
- threat appraisal
- coping appraisal

Threath appraisal (PMT model)

Refers to current risky behaviour.
+ perceived vulnerability (perceived likelihood of adverse outcome occurring; if lower, more likely to engage in risky behaviour; e.g. getting a STD)
+ perceived severity (perceived extent of harm likely if adverse outcome occurs; e.g. 'i will just get meds')
- perceived rewards (if higher, more likely to engage in risky behaviour; e.g. no discussion about condom use)

________________________________________________________
= threat appraisal

Coping appraisal (PMT model)

+ response efficacy (perceived effectiveness of risk-reducing behaviour at reducing threat; e.g. using condoms iwll prevent STD)
+ self-efficacy (beliefs about one's ability to perform risk-reducing behaviour; e.g. I am able to use a condom when having sex)
- Response costs (beliefs about any physical or psychological costs reduce its likelyhood; e.g. the sexual experience is less intense when using a condom)

____________________________________________________________
= coping appraisal

Threat appraisal x coping appraisal interaction (PMT model)

If people believe they can cope (high efficacy appraisal):
↑ perceived threat, ↑ intentions risk-reducing behaviour

If people do not believe they can cope (low efficacy appraisal):
↑ perceived threat, ↓ intentions risk-reducing behaviour

Increasng perceived threat is counterproductive in individuals with low efficacy for risk-reducing behaviour (boomerang effect)

Danger control (EPPM model)

Danger control processes involve attempting to control the threat by being motivated to adopt the risk-reducing behaviour.

Fear control (EPPM model)

Fear control processes are strategies that reduce the fear arousal associated with learning of the threat, rather than attempting to control the threat through behaviour. Fear control processes can include denial, defensive avoidance, or reactance (e.g. stating that a health-related message is manipulative, so ignoring it). People with low efficacy will engage in fear control which may lead to being counterproductive, aka the boomerang effect.

Evidence for PMT and EPPM

In general: mixed or weak evidence.

- Stronger relation between efficacy appraisals and health-related intentions/behaviour than threat appraisals.
- Difficult to change coping or self-efficacy through the provision of written information
- No support for threat x efficacy interaction

Many PMT and EPPM intervention studies assume that participants process information in a careful way, but: Cognitive processing of health threat information does not happen in a carefully considered manner!!

NOG GOED LEZEN DIT critical appraisal of studies testing PMT and the EPPM

The extent to which one can have confidence in the meta-analytic findings concerning the magnitude of relationships between threat and efficacy appraisals and intentions and behaviour depends upon the adquacy of the operationalization of these constructs.

PMT or EPPM studies often do not assess behaviour as an outcome, instead focusing on intentions. Some respondents may report low vulnerability because they do not perceive the threat as probable, while others may report low vulnerability because they intend to begin protective behaviour, and figure their anticipated future behaviour into their reported vulnerability.

Heuristic-systematic Model (HSM)

Argues that attitude change is the result of two types of information processing.

1. systematic processing: involves an analytic and in-depth consideration of judgement-relevant information.
2. heuristic processing: requires less cognitive effort, entailing the activation and application of heuristics: 'quick and easy' judgmental rules of thumb stored in memory.

According to th HSM, the sufficiency principle determines how information is processed.

Different types of motivation according to HSM

Several forms of motivaiton may (all) be present:

- accuracy motivation

- Impression motivation (desire to hold attitudes that satisfy current perceived social demands)

- Defense motivation (desire to hold beliefs congruent with one's existing self-definitional beliefs)

ALL COMBINATIONS ARE POSSIBLE

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The impact of perceived risk on risk-reducing behaviours

12 important questions on The impact of perceived risk on risk-reducing behaviours

Cigarette warning labels controversy

Models relating Risk Perceptions to Protective Behaviour

Protection motivation theory (PMT)

Threath appraisal (PMT model)

Coping appraisal (PMT model)

Threat appraisal x coping appraisal interaction (PMT model)

Danger control (EPPM model)

Fear control (EPPM model)

Evidence for PMT and EPPM

NOG GOED LEZEN DIT critical appraisal of studies testing PMT and the EPPM

Heuristic-systematic Model (HSM)

Different types of motivation according to HSM

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